Online Version of the Karate Research Article Published in Issue 120 of Shotokan Karate Magazine (July 2014)

The Okinawan Origins of Japanese Shōtōkan Karate

By: Sean R. Marshall

If asked to name the various “styles” of karate, a practitioner is likely to say Shōtōkan, Gōjū Ryū, Wadō Ryū, Kyokushinkai, Shitō Ryū, and perhaps add Uechi Ryū. Yet, it is not necessarily correct to call each of these lineages a "style". Every lineage of karate is commonly written to comprise kata (formal exercises) from one or both of just two styles: Shōrin-ryū and Shōrei-ryū. The former is usually defined as the northern-Chinese Shaolin style, while the latter is the southern-Chinese Zhaoling style. “Shōrin”, in this case, means “Shao Forest”, referring to the densely-forested region around Song Shan (Song Mountain), which is in fact a mountain range that includes Mount Shaoshi, at the northern foot of which, the famous Shaolin Temple can be found. The name also arguably refers to the area's ancient pagoda forest, situated about half a kilometre west of the Shaolin Monastery. A pagoda forest comprises a concentration of tomb-pagodas – monuments erected for deceased Shaolin/Buddhist masters. The other style, Zhaoling, means “Enlightened Spirit”, following the translation of the most commonly-used ideograms for writing Zhaoling / Shōrei.

I would, however, alter the common two-style root, and first of all add that, more correctly, Shōrin-ryū in Okinawa is an Okinawan version of Shōrin-ryū, as opposed to Chinese Shōrin-ryū – Shaolin-liu. And the same is true for Shōrei-ryū, having Okinawan and Chinese versions, as can be observed. Hence the reason for calling old karate "Ryūkyū kenpō" – the Ryūkyūan (Okinawan) version of "kenpō", the Japanese term for the Mandarin Chinese name, quanfa, which means “fist methods”. I would additionally explain that there is a third true style of karate, called "Shōrin Ryū" to separate it from "Shōrin-ryū", albeit rather subtly. I use a combination of ideograms from the names Shōrin-ryū and Shōrei-ryū to write Shōrin Ryū, resulting in the meaning being “Enlightened-forest Style”. Other karate enthusiasts have decided on the same choice of characters before me. Apparently, according to Bruce Clayton in his book, Shōtōkan’s Secret, in reference to John Sells’ work, Unante, Master Ankō Itosu wrote what is Romanised as Shōrin-ryū, with yet the same pair of symbols for "Shōrin", in his 1901/2 letter to the Japanese Ministry of Education. Note that I do not write “his 1908 letter”, as is commonly written, because it is evident from page 42 of the English edition of Master Gichin Funakoshi’s book, Karate-Dō: My Way of Life, that it had to have been written in 1901 or 1902, since Funakoshi wrote that his school of education was visited by Shintarō Ogawa in one of those years, resulting in the report to the Ministry of Education which had the effect of publicising karate within education schools in Okinawa Prefecture. That would have to have been when Itosu submitted his letter. It would appear that it accompanied Ogawa's report.

Now, within Shōrin Ryū, the kata from the two related styles are not so simply Okinawan versions as with Gōjū Ryū and Uechi Ryū, though the latter is to a lesser extent than Gōjū Ryū. Shōrin-ryū kata are Okinawan as well as having been influenced by the southern-Chinese style, resulting in southern-style Okinawan Shōrin-ryū, just as the relevant Shōrei-ryū is actually northern-style Okinawan Shōrei-ryū, while it remains plainly Okinawan in Gōjū Ryū. None of the styles are just like the original Chinese versions. A Shōrei-ryū kata in a Shōrin Ryū school (which excludes the side of Shitō Ryū that is derived from Master Higaonna) appears lighter than those of the Okinawan Shōrei-ryū in Gōjū Ryū. And a Shōrin-ryū-descended kata in Shōrin Ryū is not nearly as dynamic as the original Chinese quan (kata) of Shaolin and the northern parts of China (such as Beijing, to where various old masters, like Sōkon Matsumura and Norisato Nakaima, travelled and studied the northern-Chinese style).

In Okinawa, from 1926/7, there were village-based lineages of Shōrin Ryū, referred to as Shuri-te and Tomari-te. Yet, practitioners of Shōrin Ryū were not all from these villages alone. Both broad branches are of the Shōrin Ryū style, meaning that they can, therefore, be individually, and less separately, termed "Shuri Shōrin Ryū" and "Tomari Shōrin Ryū". However, it is not valid to so easily generalise karate into just three lineages (including Naha-te). For example, Master Itosu was born in Shuri, but studied "Shuri-te" and "Tomari-te". His lineage is often referred to as Shuri-te. But how can it be? It is simply his school of Shōrin Ryū, just as Master Matsumura transmitted a school of Shōrin Ryū. To focus on a particular village as though it represents a unique style is inaccurate and misleading. If a person was born in Naha, that does not automatically denote that they studied "Naha-te" (which was the precursor of Gōjū Ryū alone). Unsurprisingly, the village-based method was short-lived.

Japanese Shōtōkan karate is just that – Japanese. And the name “Shōtōkan” is derived from the original dōjō name of Master Gichin Funakoshi’s Japanese-style karate. Using the name as a supposed style name is for the mere purpose of distinguishing between the various lineages – and they are more accurately lineages, since the relevant styles previously discussed, are embedded within the numerous lineages. However, while there are some differences between the real styles of karate, and each karate lineage has a different age, Gōjū Ryū being younger than Shōrin Ryū in Okinawa (which has nothing to do with when the style of Shōrin Ryū was first officially named by Master Chōshin Chibana in the early- to mid-1930s), every lineage and every style of karate is simply “karate”. It would not be correct to say that Shōrin Ryū has the oldest lineage/s, and therefore it must be true Okinawan karate, while the lineages of Gōjū Ryū and Uechi Ryū are younger in Okinawa, meaning that they are more accurately Okinawan kenpō, not Okinawan karate. Karate is kenpō. It is traditionally often called karate kenpō, as yet another alternative old name.

Master Kenwa Mabuni’s Shitō Ryū principally combines the teachings of Shuri-village's Ryūkyū kenpō master, Itosu, and Naha-village's Shōrei-ryū master, Kanryō Higaonna, along with other teachers such as Master Seishō Aragaki, thereby merging the Shōrin Ryū kata from Master Itosu, with the Okinawan Shōrei-ryū karate of Master Higaonna. Kanryō had already re-developed the Chinese Shōrei-ryū kata he had learnt, making them Okinawan, as can be noted when comparing the southern-Chinese and Okinawan styles. From a certain angle, Shitō Ryū could be called another style, since it combines Shōrin Ryū and "Naha-te" (Okinawan Shōrei-ryū), yet retains the kata of Master Higaonna’s line without major technical alterations. However, Shitō Ryū conclusively comprises all three styles of Ryūkyū kenpō karate. Regarding personalisation, there is a common focus on the cat stance in Shitō Ryū, which appears to be at least part of the result of the noted Chinese martial arts (crane style) influence from Master Gokenki upon Mabuni.

The original karate kenpō that Master Funakoshi brought to mainland-Japan from Okinawa can in fact be called Shōrin Ryū. Distinguishing it from other lineages, it is Funakoshiha Shōrin Ryū (Funakoshi's school of Shōrin Ryū). It can even be justified that specifying the school with the name "Funakoshi" is more unique to the lineage than just for the superficial purpose of naming the line. The kata of Master Funakoshi’s Okinawan karate exhibit numerous differences when compared with other versions of those same kata. Master Funakoshi appears to have actually made some changes to the kata, based on his studies under various teachers, including Masters Itosu and Azato (Asato), principally, as well as Masters Kiyuna, Tōonno, Niigaki, and, not forgetting, Sōkon Matsumura, as he noted in Karate-Dō: My Way of Life. With all of these influences, and with the evident common practice for a karate student to personalise his/her karate, even potentially creating his/her own kata composed of new ideas/techniques, Funakoshi was not just plausibly, but doubtlessly no different to other karate masters. He developed his Okinawan-style school while he was still living in Okinawa, some time prior to travelling to (and ultimately remaining in) mainland-Japan in 1922.

To provide an example of one of Funakoshi's kata, his passai [dai] ("bassai" in Japanese) is partly from Master Itosu, since Master Chibana practised a similar version of passai which he called passai [shō], and which was "Itosu no passai" by origin. It is similar, rather than the same, because, for instance, the stances used by Chibana in the opening section are back stances (or perhaps arguably cat stances, due to their very short length), whereas Funakoshi utilised front stances for the same portion. Whose is closer to Master Itosu’s original?

Funakoshi-ha Shōrin Ryū Passai [Dai] & Mabuni Shitō Ryū Itosu Passai [Dai] - Inside block

Mabuni Shitō Ryū Itosu Passai [Dai] - Shortened front-stance - Outside block

Mabuni Shitō Ryū Itosu Passai [Dai] - Cat stance - Outside block

Chibana Shōrin Ryū Itosu Passai - Short back-stance - Outside block

Itosu Passai [Dai] - Inside-block training with the makiwara (straw-padded striking post)

Itosu Passai [Dai] - Outside block with the makiwara

Itosu Passai [Dai] - Inside-block hammer strike with the makiwara

Itosu Passai [Dai] - Outside-block thumb-knuckle strike with the makiwara

Mabuni's Shitō Ryū illustrates a version of the same Itosu passai, but with a blend of front stances and cat stances during the same initial sequence. Yet, since Chibana taught short back-stances for the comparable section, it cannot be easily concluded that Itosu's original idea was to practise with front stances. It is notable that Mabuni was approximately 21 years younger than Funakoshi, so could quite possibly have been influenced by Funakoshi’s personal study of passai to some extent, specifically if the use of front stances did not originate from Master Itosu. Of course, Mabuni might have decided on his own to use some front stances and some cat stances (the latter being a usual introduction of Mabuni's, as previously described). Although, it may be that Chibana was the master who made alterations to all of the stances in this segment, after learning to perform the techniques with front stances from Itosu.

Further examination seems to conclude that Funakoshi combined Itosu’s and Matsumura’s passai kata to create a different version of passai [dai]. The particular comparable passai that exists in Shitō Ryū contains more similarities with Chibana’s Itosu passai than Funakoshi’s passai [dai], meaning that Itosu’s original must have been more like Mabuni’s and Chibana’s. Another specific example for comparison is that Funakoshi performed a crescent kick rather than a front kick, during his passai [dai], which is like Matsumura’s passai. Chibana appears to have delivered a front kick in his Itosu passai, but a crescent kick in his "Matsumura passai" (as it was apparently initially entitled). Mabuni's karate looks to have embraced a crescent kick for the same kata, though in another demonstration a front kick can be seen within the bunkai (applications). The respective positions taken immediately prior to kicking, perhaps more definitely further supports Funakoshi having re-designed the kata. "Funakoshi passai" appears more like one of the two Matsumura passai just before the crescent kick, while Mabuni's and Chibana's versions are, again, rather comparable with each other.

Japanese Shōtōkan Karate Bassai [Dai] - Prior to the crescent kick

Okinawan Funakoshi-ha Shōrin Ryū Karate Passai [Dai] - Before the crescent kick

Passai (Bassai) kata - High crescent-kick with the makiwara

Passai kata - Low crescent-kick with the makiwara

Mabuni Shitō Ryū Itosu Passai [Dai] - Preparation for a front kick or a crescent kick

Passai kata - Crescent kick

Chibana Shōrin Ryū Itosu Passai - Preparation for the front kick

Chibana Shōrin Ryū Itosu Passai - Front kick

Within evaluating Master Itosu's and Master Matsumura's karate schools, the pin’an ("heian" in Japanese) kata, which are of particular notability in the history-related study of Okinawan Shōrin Ryū karate and, therefore, the origins of Shōtōkan, are most often, if not always, noted to have been developed by Itosu. Even in the odd case where the first or/and second pin’an kata may receive a comment like, "They were formulated by Master Matsumura," the remaining kata of the series are still "recorded" to be Master Itosu’s. However, it can actually be proved that the common theory is not true.

The pin’an kata, of which there are five separated forms which each represent a stage in the learning of the complete pin’an system, must have, in truth, been created by Master Sōkon Matsumura. In the lineage known today as Matsumura Seitō Shōrin Ryū karate (Matsumura Orthodox Shōrin Ryū karate), the pin’an kata exist. Master Hohan Sōken, who named the line, was taught karate directly and, as is recorded, solely by his uncle, Master Nabe Matsumura, the grandson, and a direct student, of Bushi (Gentleman-warrior) Sōkon Matsumura. Apparently, Nabe was the pupil who received Sōkon's scrolls, becoming the first successor of the Matsumura lineage. Master Ankō Azato may have transmitted Sōkon Matsumura's teachings, but, to my knowledge, nowhere does it state that he received Matsumura's manuscripts (if it is indeed true that scrolls of teachings changed hands at that time in Ryūkyū, though the alternative is equal, minus the written proof). The sole instruction (not including additional kobujutsu) made it appropriate for Master Sōken to entitle his lineage as the orthodox line. It was transmitted, at most, relatively unchanged, and can be observed in the old footage of Matsumura Seitō karate featuring Master Sōken and some of his students.

Now, one point to consider is that Master Sōken trained with Master Kenwa Mabuni as a colleague, among others who included such people as Master Gokenki. With this, it may seem possible that Sōken learnt the pin’an from Mabuni, though they were only fellow students, not teacher and student. If that were true, it would enable the kata to probably stem from Master Itosu. However, I cannot see this to be accurate, since, upon examining the Shitō Ryū versions of the pin’an kata, those found in Matsumura Seitō karate are different. While Sōken could have introduced changes, it seems highly unlikely that such a person would deceive every practitioner by claiming that his lineage was the orthodox line over others, when in fact there were multiple influences which resulted in practising the same basic kata as other Shōrin Ryū schools. There may have been some affects from training with Mabuni and others, but not to such a great extent, based on the evidence.

Furthermore, Matsumura Seitō karate (Machimura suidī) teaches three naihanchi kata, the second two of which are often said to also have descended from Itosu. This fact greatly supports the suggestion that Sōkon Matsumura was the man who devised the pin'an kata. Itosu only made alterations to these forms. They were originally transmitted to him, not created by him. Additionally, I believe the pin'an kata to be purely Okinawan as they unusually have their kanji (Chinese ideograms) known without doubt, while many, if not most, kata have to be written with katakana (Japanese symbols for foreign words) if they are to not suggest potential untruths of original meaning. There are some kata, such as jion, jitte, ji’in, kūsankū, and wansū, which have known kanji due to either the few written-records that do exist on the subject, or as a result of research. Kata names such as naihanchi, passai, sōchin, and rōhai, classically lack records, which supports them having originated in foreign lands, including China (the most dominant of all of the various places of origin), Taiwan, Korea, and other countries. Though, kata like kūsankū and wansū, which began as systems of techniques excluding formal exercises, also originated from outside of Ryūkyū. Importantly, the pin'an kanji are neither a Chinese person's name, nor first recorded after "pin'an" was previously written with katakana. The meaning of "pin'an" is confidently known, in the same sentence as noting, for instance, "naihanchi" using symbols for pronunciation rather than meaning. This seems to rather firmly infer that the system was developed in Ryūkyū. The research & analysis points to Okinawan Shōrin Ryū karate master, Sōkon Matsumura, being the true creator of the pin'an kata.

There is one extra consideration, which is that it has been suggested that "channan" was the original name for the pin'an kata. Yet, Master Morinobu Itoman recorded in his book, The Study of China-hand Techniques, that channan was separate to pin'an, according to the list of kata he provided on pages 90 and 91. He wrote it to be Yoshimura-shi channan. Whether or not this is Chōmei Yoshimura, the kanji for "Yoshi" are different in each case, suggesting that they were two separate people. There is no solid evidence to support channan as the predecessor of pin'an. Even more so when it is learnt that the kanji for pin'an, meaning "safe and sound" according to Collins Chinese Dictionary (p. 135), are Romanised as "píng'ān" in Mandarin, illustrating obvious comparison with the Okinawan pronunciation. Of course, channan could simply be of a different dialect. Perhaps the kanji were unknown, either as well, or just as usual, catalysing a name change. Itoman's text illustrates katakana for channan, but shows the strongly-corroborated kanji for pin'an. However, channan may in fact be a separate system to pin'an. Studying the pin'an kata reveals that they contain many movements found in other kata which did originate from China, including kūsankū, chintō, jion, and perhaps rōhai and others. How could the pin'an be so closely related to a variety of karate kata, yet truthfully originate from a completely different system? Therefore, it would be more plausible that, if channan is related, certain techniques were drawn from it, as opposed to theorising that the whole form is/was the original pin'an. The pin'an system is a hybrid Okinawan series of kata, with several versions in existence.

Master Gichin Funakoshi, just like his teachers and contemporaries, personalised his karate, implementing alterations and creations. He did this not just in mainland-Japan, but when he had resided in Okinawa Prefecture. It would appear that he made changes to a variety of kata, the pin'an kata he practised seeming to contain differences in his lineage, which may or may not be of his doing, but which are clearly at least fairly possibly from his own decisions. His original karate was Okinawan karate of the Shōrin Ryū type. It is within the first karate books written by Master Funakoshi in 1922 and 1925, namely "Ryūkyū Kenpō Karate" and "Rentan Goshin Karate Jutsu", respectively, where the invaluable descriptions and illustrations of his old Okinawan teachings can be perused, even though incompletely presented. The official English edition is entitled "Karate Jutsu". Funakoshi's karate is largely a combination of Master Itosu's and Master Azato's karate, the latter being essentially Master Matsumura's lineage. Azato's influence regarding Funakoshi's technical practice is very often over-looked. Funakoshiha Shōrin Ryū karate should be noted as much more of an individual school than is ever commonly-stated. Before it became Japanese, Funakoshi's karate kenpō, like other lineages, was, of course, Okinawan, despite Japanese influence upon Okinawan culture. Karate had remained secret while other (non-secretive) elements of traditional Ryūkyūan culture were "Japanized". Karate only truly began to become Japanese – and clearly not even immediately – when it was finally taught to the mainland-Japanese public from the early-1920s. 

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Note that some of the photographs illustrated within this publication of this article were not published in issue 120 of Shotokan Karate Magazine. 12 photos were sent to, and used by, the magazine publisher. 

The copyright to the article and photographs above belongs to Sean R. Marshall, with the three-month period post-publication of the magazine issue having lapsed. 

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Issue 120 of Shotokan Karate Magazine can be purchased directly from the publisher via their website.

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"Origins of Shotokan" (DVD-film)
The origins of the article, "The Okinawan Origins of Japanese Shotokan Karate"

The article was separately written, but is related to, the documentary film I produced in 2013, entitled "Origins of Shotokan".